WORD STRESS in English

WORD STRESS in English 

SIX BASIC RULES

to help you place the tonic accent on multi-syllable words in Engish.

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These rules do not cover all the words in English; but they do cover the large majority of plurisyllabic words in the language.

The problem:  should you say:  difficult or difficult or difficult?

    Where do we put the accent on multi-syllable words in English? English people don't often make mistakes, but they never learn any rules! Obviously therefore there must be some fairly simple basic "rules" that apply to words with 2, 3, or 4 syllables. Here are the most important of these rules.

1.  A word is normally stressed on the first syllable, unless there is a reason to put the stress somewhere else.
   
   
2. The "reasons" are either suffixes (like -ity) or prefixes (like con-, dis-, ex- or in-).
   
   
3. If the suffix (ending) starts with the letters i or u this will affect the position of stress in a word.
   Sample suffixes: -ion, -ual, -ial, -ient, -ious, -ior,  -ic, -ity, etc.
   The stress comes on the syllable before the suffix.
   Examples: Atlantic, comic, sufficient, explanation, residual.
   There are only a very few exceptions to this rule.
   
   
4. Other suffixes do not affect the stress of a word.
   Sample suffixes: -al, -ous, -ly, -er, -ed, -ist, -ing, -ment 
   Examples: Permanent,  permanently.
   
   
5.  ► Prefixes are not normally stressed in two-syllable words, except in  some nouns or adjectives.
   Examples:  To ex'pand, to de'fend; but an 'expert, a report.
   Nouns may need to be learned individually.
   
     ► Prefixes are usually stressed in three-syllable nouns and adjectives, but not always stressed in verbs.
   Examples: 'Continent, 'incident, 'exercise;
        to con'sider, to en'visage but to 'indicate
   (all three syllable verbs ending in -ate are stressed on the first syllable).
   
   
6. Rule 3 takes priority over all others, notably when a "rule 3 ending" is followed by a "rule 4 ending",
   Examples :  perpetually, deliciously, conditional, conditioner, illusionist.

This list of rules is not complete, but it does expalin where to place the main accent  in  the majority of  words in English.

Can you designate the tonic syllable (main stress) in these words which all obey the rules?

Britain,  England,  Edinburgh,  region, regional, economic, to complain, community, to refuse, considering.

Language and style

Language and style

In any language, different styles of expression are appropriate in different situations. We can go from the formal to the informal, the written to the spoken, from technical language (or jargon) to slang.
 

There are no "rules" as such; nevertheless, there are plenty of features which distinguish formal styles from informal styles. Here are some of them.

Principles of English written style:
Note: these are principles: they are by no means to be considered as "rules".

• a) The more formal a document  is, the more it will use inanimate nouns as subjects of a sentence.
• b) The more formal language is, the more it is likely to use passive structures.
• c) The more formal language is, the more verbal nouns it will use.
• d) The more formal a document is, the more words of Latin origin it will use.

Conversely

• a) The more informal or spontaneous language is, the more it will use humans as the subjects of sentences.
• b) The more informal a text is, the less it will use passive structures,
• c) The more informal a text is, the more it will use verb structures (where a choice is possible) instead of verbal nouns.
• b) The more informal or spoken a text is, the more words of Germanic origin it will use.

Here are some examples; in each case, the same idea is expressed using three different levels of formality: look at the different changes that occur, as we move from a formal style to an informal one
 

1. The inclement climatic conditions obliged the President to return earlier than scheduled. The president was obliged to return earlier than planned due to poor weather conditions. The president had to go back sooner than  planned because the weather was so bad.

2. Please await instructions before dispatching items. Please wait for instructions before sending items off. Don't send anything off until you're told to do so.

Essential measures should be undertaken at the earliest opportunity. One should undertake any necessary measures at the earliest opportunity. You should do whatever you have to as soon as you can.

Prior to the discovery of America, potatoes were not consumed in Europe. Before America was discovered, potatoes were not eaten in Europe. Before they discovered America, Europeans didn't eat potatoes.

From Written to spoken styles.
Written and spoken versions of a language use different styles, different registers. To talk in "written English" may be no more appropriate than to write using a "spoken" variety of English. Generally speaking, written English is always more formal than spoken English. nevertheless, there are informal forms of written English (notably in fiction and in the popular press), and formal styles of spoken English, in particular "discourse", or prepared speech.
In the following examples, the same message is expressed in five different styles, from an extremely formal written style, to the very informal spoken style. 
Note in particular how the colour coded word groups evolve.
(The information expressed in the following examples is necessarily quite technical, as formal jargon levels of expression are totally inappropriate for non technical communication).
Example 1:

a) Jargon, very formal. This is the style of language used in official reports, technical studies, etc. It is exclusively a style of written English, full of verbal nouns,technical words and passives. Consequent to the appreciation in the exchange value of Sterling against other currencies, necessary fiscal measures were introduced by the government in order to reduce the likelihood of an import-led consumer spending surge.

b) Written, formal, clear. This is clear, written English, as found in the press or in documents aimed at ordinary educated readers. After the international value of Sterling rose, the government was obliged to take fiscal measures to reduce the likelihood of a surge in consumer spending led by cheaper imports.

c) Written style for the general public, discourse, scripted radio or TV news style. As the value of Sterling increased compared to other currencies, the government was forced to take tax measures to head off a rapid increase in consumer spending spurred on by cheaper imports.

d) Formal spoken style - radio, seminar, talk. As Sterling's international value went up, the government had to take tax measures to head off a consumer spending boom spurred on by cheaper imports.

e) Relaxed, informal spoken style: discussion. There is plenty of use of prepositional verbs. All actions are now expressed through verbs, not verbal nouns As Sterling went up in value, the government had to put up taxes to stop consumers splashing out on too many cheap imports.

f) relaxed, simplified, chat, very informal spoken style;  Note the addition of repetition and fillers. And you see, Sterling went up and up in value, so as a result, the government had to go round putting up taxes, you see, to stop everyone going out and splashing out, spending all their cash on cheap imports.

Example 2:

Considering the gravity of the economic recession, it was suggested that the Directors should take immediate damage limitation measures, including, should it be necessary, a substantial reduction in the workforce.

Students: try rephrasing this sentence in at least two less formal styles:

Expressing indirect questions in English

 Expressing indirect questions
in English 

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While expressing reported statements in English is relatively easy to master, putting direct questions into reported speech can often cause problems for the learner.

The simplest way to master the rules or structures is to start with a few varied direct questions, and use them as models. We will use the following Models:
 ►  M1. Where is my jacket ?  (question using to be)
 ►  M2. What is making that noise ? ( Wh word as subject, )
 ►  M3  Does she  like chocolate? (no question word present)
 ►  M4. What are you doing ? (Wh word as object).
 ►  M5. Where do you live ? (Wh word as adverb)

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Premiminary points:

• a) The main thing to remember is that in reported interrogatives, there is
  no inversion of  subject and verb.
• b) Reported speech can be introduced by a lot of different verbs, but most commonly by expressions such as "He asked...... , I wonder....." etc. 
• When there is no question word (as in model M3), indirect questions are introduced by if or whether.

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Reporting the present: simultaneous reporting.

This is not complicated. The verb tense in the reported question is the same as in the original question.

 ►  M1. "Where is my jacket ?"  ► He's asking where his jacket is.
 ►  M2. "What is making that noise ?" ► I wonder what's making that noise
 ►  M3. "Does she like chocolate ?" ► I wonder if  (whether) she likes chocolate.
 ►  M4. "What are you doing ?"  ► He's asking what you're doing.
       M4. "What is he saying ?"  ► I wonder what he's saying..
 ►  M5. "Where does he come from ?"  ► I wonder where he comes from.

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Reporting the past: deferred reporting.

This is a little more complicated, but not impossible to master. It is the more common form of reporting.  The verb in the reported question usually changes.

Reporting the present  from the past.
If the reported question refers to a past situation, the verb in the reported question clause should go in the past.
But if the reported question refers to a permanent or ongoing situation (M11, M21, etc) , it can remain in the present.

 ►  M1." Where is my jacket ?"  ► He asked where his jacket was.
          M11 "Where is London ?"  ► He asked where London is
 ►  M2. "What is making that noise ?" ► I wondered what was making the noise.
          M21 "Who lives in this house ?"  ► I wondered who lives in this house.
 ►  M3. "Do you want a chocolate?" ► They asked (me) If I wanted a chocolate .
          M31 "Do you speak English ?"  ► He asked (me) if I speak English.
 ►  M4. "What are you doing ?"  ► He asked what you were doing.
          M41 "What are you doing ?"  ► He asked what you're doing .
►  M3. "What is he saying?"  ► I asked what he was saying..
►  M5. "Where does he come from ?"  ► I asked him where he came from.

In the examples above, the jacket (M1) has moved since the question was asked, but London  (M11) has not moved !  We can suppose that the noise (M2) has stopped, but that the person still lives (M21)  in the house,  and so on.
As for example M31, people often put the verb into the past tense in this type of reported question, though strictly this is not necessary, nor really really correct.  "He asked me if I spoke English" suggests that speaking English is something you can do one day, but not the next..

Reporting the future  from the past.
When a direct question using a future verb form is reported, the future form of the question clause becomes a conditional, or a future-in-the-past.
     will > would   –  are going to > were going to  –  can  >  could,  etc.

►  M1. "Where will you be tomorrow?"  ► He asked where I would be the following day.
        M11 "Where will I be in 2030 ?"  ► I wondered where I'll be in 2030.
►  M2. "What will come next ?" ► He asked what would come next .
►  M3. "Will you take me home?" ► I asked if he'd take me home .
       M31" Will he still be there in 2020 ?"  ► I wondered if he'll still be there in 2020.
►  M4." What are you going to do ?"  ► He asked what I was going to do..
       M41 "Who's she going to marry ?"  ► They asked who she's going to marry .
►  M5. "How will you survive?"  ► He asked me how I'd survive .

Footnote:
Absolute and relative adverbs of time or place.
English (like many other languages) has a series of adverbs of time and place which are absolute concepts, and strictly related to present time (the moment) or place.  Now,  today,  yesterday,  tomorrow,  in five minutes' time (etc), here.
In indirect questions or statements, the moment is not the same as it was when the question or statement was originally made. Therefore it is often necessary to change the adverb of time and use one that  expresses a relative concept of time.  Here are the most common pairs:

• Today         that day
• Tomorrow   the next day, the following day
• Yesterday    the day before, the previous day
• Now            then, at that moment,
• In five minutes' (etc)  time    five minutes (etc.) later
• Here            there

Example:
     "Can you be here tomorrow?"  would be reported as:
     He asked if I could be there the following day.

WORD ORDER in english

Sentence structure in English

WORD ORDER
Word order is very important in English; but it is not complicated, and can be reduced to a few basic rules or principles. 

►  1.1 In a normal (declarative) sentence, the subject of a sentence comes directly in front of the verb. The direct object (when there is one) comes directly after it:
   Examples: The man wrote a letter.
   People who live in glasshouses shouldn't throw stones.
   The president laughed.
►  1.2. Note that by the subject, we mean not just a single word, but the subject noun or pronoun plus descriptive phrases that go with it. The rest of the sentence - i.e. the part that is not the subject - is called the predicate.
     Example:People who live in glasshouses shouldn't throw stones.
► 1.3. If a sentence has any other parts to it - indirect objects, adverbs or adverb phrases - these usually come in the following places:
1.3.1 The position of the indirect object 
   The indirect object follows the direct object when it is formed with the preposition to:
   The indirect object comes in front of the direct object if to is omitted
     Example: The doctor gave some medicine to the child.
       or: The doctor gave the child some medicine. 

1.3.2. Adverbs or adverb phrases can come in three possible places:
   - Before the subject  (Notably with common adverbs or adverb phrases)
    Example: Yesterday the man wrote a letter.
  - After the object  (Virtually any adverb or adverb phrase can be placed here)
    Example:  The man wrote a letter on his computer in the train.
   - In the middle of the verb group. (Notably with short common adverbs)
   Example The man has already written   his letter
► 1.4 In standard English, nothing usually comes between the subject and the verb, or between the verb and the object.
  There are a few exceptions. The most important of these are adverbs of frequency and indirect objects without to.
     Example:  The man often wrote his mother a letter.
                     I sometimes give my dog a bone.
If you always apply these few simple rules, you will not make too many word order problems in English. The examples above are deliberately simple - but the rules can be applied even to complex sentences, with subordinate and coordinated clauses.

The director, [who often told his staff (to work harder),] never left the office before [he had checked his e-mail.]

1.5 QUESTIONS:
Remember this simple and common English phrase:
   How do you do?
The structure of almost every simple question in English is based on this same model:
   (Question word) - Auxiliary or modal - subject - main verb - (plus the rest of the sentence):
Examples
   What did Tom Cruise do?
   Did Arnold Schwarzenegger  learn English quickly?
   How quickly did Arnold Schwarzenegger  learn English ?
   Has the representative from that German company sent us his invoice yet?

2: Exceptions
Of course, there are exceptions to many rules, and writers and speakers sometimes use different or unusual word order for special effects. But if we concentrate on the exceptions, we may forget the main principles, and the question of word order may start to seem very complex! So here are just a few examples: you should realise that they exist, but not try to use them unless either they are essential in the context, or else you have fully mastered normal word order patterns. (Don't try to run before you can walk!)

A few examples:
    - Never before had I seen such a magnificent exhibition.
    (After never or never before, subject and verb can be - and usually are - inverted).
    - Hardly had I left the house, than it started to rain.
     (When a sentence starts with hardly, subject and verb must be inverted.).
    - Had I known, I'd never have gone there.
     (Inversion occurs in unfulfilled hypothetical conditional structures when if is omitted.. See the page on conditional clauses for more details)
    -  The book that you gave me I'd read already.
      (The long object, The book that you gave me, is placed at the start of the sentence for  reasons of style: this unusual sentence structure is not necessary, just stylistic).

3: Going further: other issues of word order.
Specific word order issues are also considered on other pages:

•   Word order in relative clauses
•   Word order with phrasal or prepositional verbs
•   Determining the order of adjectives

Conditional clauses in English

The conditional clause in English:
clauses with if or unless

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There are three types of conditional statement in English:

1. The open conditional statement.
2. The hypothetical conditional statement.
3. The unfulfilled hypothetical statement.
   
   Part 4:
4. Omission of "if".

The conditional clause can either go before the main clause, or after it.

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Type 1. The open conditional statement :
 This usually refers to a future event which is conditional on another future event.
The verb of the main clause is in the future tense with "will" (or sometimes another modal).
The verb of the conditional clause is in the simple present tense. 
     If you eat too much, you'll get fat.emilybroadhead@gmail.com
     You'll get fat if you eat too much.
     If everyone works fast, we'll finish in time.emilybroadhead@gmail.com
     We won't finish in time unless everyone works fast.
     If I go to London, I can visit the British Museum.
     If you visit Scotland, you should visit Edinburgh Castle.
     Unless the directors can increase sales, we'll have to close this shop.     

Occasionally, the open conditional statement describes one potential state of reality or circumstance which is dependent on another.  In this case, both verbs are in the present tense.
     If I sleep well at night, I feel much happier next morning.
     If the temperature falls below zero, it freezes.
     If it rains, everyone gets wet.   

In an open conditional statement, if is sometimes replaced by when: but there is a difference. Using "if" implies that the condition really is open and may not be fulfilled, using "when" implies that the condition will be fulfilled, that the event will really take place.

Type 2. The open hypothetical conditional statement:
This refers to a possible future situation which depends on on another possible future situation. The verb of the main clause uses the present conditional tense (would + infinitive, or could +infinitive);
The verb of the conditional clause normally uses the present subjunctive or preterite (these two tenses are identical except with to be). Occasionally, the conditional aspect of the statement can be emphasised by using the form were + to + infinitive.
     1A  If you ate too much, you'd (you would) get fat.
     1B  You'd get fat if you ate too much.
     2A  If everyone worked faster, we would / could finish in time.
     2B  We wouldn't finish in time unless everyone worked faster.
     2C  If everyone were to work faster, we would/could finish in time.
     3    If I went to London, I would / could visit the British Museum.
     4.   If you visited Scotland, you could visit Edinburgh Castle.
     5    Unless the directors could increase sales, we'd have to close this shop.            

Not also this common expression (which uses the open hypothetical form, though it is clearly quite impossible!)
      6.   If I were you, I'd ..........
       As in:  If I were you, I'd go a bit slower  /  If I were you, I'd put that gun down !!

This form is also used in cases of reported speech.
      My professor told me I'd do much better if I worked harder.
     The magistrate informed him that he'd go to prison unless he stopped stealing.
     The newspaper reported that unless the directors could increase sales, they'd have to close the shop.

Type 3. The unfulfilled hypothesis
This refers to a situation which an event might have taken place, but did not, because a condition was not fulfilled.
The verb of the main  clause goes in the past conditional (would have + past participle).
The verb of the conditional clause goes in the past perfect (had + past participle).
 Examples:
If you had eaten too much, you'd (you would) have got fat.
     You'd have got fat if you'd eaten too much.
     If everyone had worked fast, we'd have finishd in time (but we didn't).
     We wouldn't have finished in time unless everyone had worked fast (but we did).
     If I had gone to London, I could have visited the British Museum (but I didn't)
    If you had visited Scotland, you could have visited Edinburgh Castle (but you didn't).
     Unless we'd been very confident of success, we wouldn't have even tried.
             (But we were confident, we did try, and we succeeded)
emilybroadhead@gmail.com
Note: using " unless"

"Unless" means the same as "if ... not", and has a negative value. It is frequently (but not only) used in conditional statements where the verb of the main clause is also  in the negative.
     You wouldn't have fallen over unless there'd been a banana skin on the ground.
=   You wouldn't have fallen over if there hadn't been a banana skin on the ground.
emilybroadhead@gmail.com

4  Omission of "if", with inversion.
Sometimes, hypothetical conditional statements or unfulfilled hypothetical statements can be expressed omitting the word if.
When this happens the subject follows the auxiliary verb in the conditional clause
Examples:
      Were the virus to reappear, hospitals would now be ready for it. (open hypothesis)
  =  If the virus reappeared, hospitals would now be ready for it.
  or  If the virus were to reappear, hospitals would now be ready for it.

     Had I known, I'd never have gone there (unfulfilled hypothesis; implying "I did go there".)
  =If I had known, I'd never have gone there.

The Relative clause in English

Relative pronouns can cause trouble in English, specially when they are in unusual forms, such as “whom” or “whose”. And there’s another problem: when to use which  and when to use that? Here are some clear guidelines to help you.

1. The relative pronoun as subject
1.1. When the relative pronoun is subject of a clause and refers to a human, the relative pronoun who is generally used. Examples:
     The man who lives next door is 99.
     I know someone who eats red hot chilli peppers.
Sometimes, who is replaced by that, especially in American English and in spoken language:            
     The boy that lost his watch was careless.
However,
     The boy who lost his watch was careless.
is also quite possible.
After the antecedent those, who is almost always required:
     Those who can swim should go first.

1.2. If the relative is the subject of a clause and refers to an inanimate antecedent, which or that must be used.
            The book that’s on the table is mine.
            The book which is on the table is mine.
1.3. IMPORTANT:
Omission: As subject of a clause, the relative pronoun can never be omitted. However, the relative clause can be completely omitted:
            The book is on the table is mine   is quite impossible, but
            The book on the table is mine   is perfectly acceptable.

 
2. The relative pronoun as object:
When the relative is the direct object of the clause, and refers to a human, the relative pronoun is either whom or that.
Examples:
     The man whom I saw yesterday is 99.           
     The man that I saw yesterday is 99.
Alternatively, the relative can be omitted, particularly in spoken language:            
     The man I saw yesterday is 99.

Whom is not used very often: that, or omission of the relative pronoun, are much more common.
When an inanimate object is referred to, the same rules apply, except that whom is never used: it is replaced by which.
Example:
     The book that I was reading was very interesting,  or
     The book which I was reading was very interesting,  or
     The book I was reading was very interesting
are all possible

Omission: when it is the object of the clause, the relative pronoun can often be omitted, particularly in written English.

3. The relative pronoun as a possessive
Whose is required with both animate and inanimate antecedents: it is the only derivative of who which can refer to animates and inanimates:
 Examples:
      I know someone whose sister is a nurse.
      The man whose car I borrowed is very rich.
      I chose the set whose price was reduced.

4. Relative clauses starting with a prepositon:
Note how to form relative clauses after prepositions:
      The man with whom I was talking was angry.
      The chair on which I sat down collapsed.

5. More complex structures:
   5.1 Possession + propositon:
      The player on whose skills the match most depended, was the goalkeeper.
    5.2. Selective possession
      The café, most of whose customers had deserted it, had to close.
      The writer, the first of whose books had been a bestseller, was a coal miner.

6. Defining and non-defining relatives.

A "Defining" relative clause is one which is essential for the understanding of a statement.
Examples:
     Protestors who smash windows will be arrested.
In this example, it is clear that "all protestors who smash windows" will be arrested. The word "protestors" in this example is restricted by the relative clause that defines it
 Commas are not required before and after the relative clause.

In a non-defining relative clause, the relative clause is not essential for an understanding of the sentence:
     Protestors, who are mostly aged under 30, want to express an opinion.
In this example, the question of age is not an essential bit of information. The relative clause can be omitted without making the sentence meaningless.
     In cases like this, commas are usually required before and after the relative clause.

Compare these two examples:
     People who eat too much tend to have poorer health.
     Sportsmen, who pay attention to their diet, are not usually over-weight.

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7: Relative clauses which qualify a whole sentence, not just a noun:
The relative clause is introduced by which, never that or what.

C1. He drank too much, which is why he was sick.
C2. It was raining yesterday, which was rather a pity.

(8: for French speakers; click here for information on expressing the French relative pronoun "dont" in English.)

Possessive structures in English - use of "of" and 's

Possessive structures in English - use of "of" and 's

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            "Should I use "of" or an "s" structure?"
    Sadly there's no absolute rule to tell you whether you need to use, or can use, a "possessive" form with "of", on one with "'s". The simple rule that you can "only use 's with people" is a very broad generalisation, with lots of excep­tions. Besides, there are a lot of cases where, even with people, you cannot use 's. So here are the main forms of "possession", and some exam­ples to re­member:

The first thing to determine is: is the "possessor" animate or inanimate?

1) Animates: HUMAN POSSESSORS,  OR ASSIMILATED:
In cases of true possession: 's is normal.

A1) The accountant's car wouldn't start.
A2) The dog's leg was broken

With qualities, attributes or actions: 's is common.

A3) Madonna's reputation is international.
A4)  The dog's name was Jackson.
A5) The Queen's arrival was delayed.

These can also be easily expressed using of.

A31) The reputation of Madonna is international.
A41) The name of the dog .....

There is a difference in emphasis between the two alternatives: examples A3-A5 emphasize the possessor, A31 and A41 emphasize the quality or attribute. In A5, the "possessor" is the subject of the verbal noun following it. 

Cases where there is no choice:

Sometimes however, even though both forms are theoretically possible, the structure of a sentence will determine the choice of expression, as a word may have to stand next to other words qualifying it: for example

A32) The reputation of Madonna, the American singer, is international

We can NOT say:

A32X) ** Madonna's reputation, the American singer, is international. **

Examples A1 and A2 will  be rephrased using "of" if this is structurally essential:

A 11) This is the car of the accountant I had lunch with yesterday.

Clearly, the other theoretical option gives the wrong meaning!

A 11x) ** This is the accountant's car I had lunch with yesterday. **

1.1. Relating a part to a whole (animates)

Use of "of" is  obligatory when expressing the relation of a part to a plural whole

A6  the rest of the people,
A7 the majority of voters

We can NOT say:

A61x:  the people's rest,  
A71x:  the voters' majority

Of and 's are both possible (depending on sentence structure) when expressing the relation of a part to a unitary (single) whole.

A8  The man's arm was broken, or
A81 The arm of the man was broken

2. Inanimate possessors 

For qualities, attributes, actions, or parts: Of is the usual structure, but 's may be possible; The unusual "'s" form can be used with some familiar nouns for stress, or for reasons of sentence structure.

B1 The cost of the operation was enormous.
B2 The condition of the merchandise we received was not very satisfactory
B3 The launch of the new book was very successful.
B31 The new book's launch was very successful.
B4 Where's the lid of the saucepan?
B5 The front end of the car was smashed up.
B6 The departure of the train was delayed for an hour.
B61 The train's departure was delayed for an hour.

In examples B3 and B6, the sentence could be rephrased using subject and verb instead of the possessive structures.
B32 The new book was launched very successfully (subj. + passive verb)
B62  the train departed an hour later than planned (subj. + active verb)

2.1. Relating a part to a whole (inanimates)

The "of" form is normally obligatory when expressing the relation of a part to a whole (or a whole to its parts)

B7 the top of the stairs .
B8 the back of the building
B9 A collection of paintings
B10  The middle of the report

We can NOT say:

B71x:     the stairs' top .
B81x:     the building's back.

However there  sometimes is a choice when the part is expressed as adjective+noun

B11 The top floor of the building
B111 The building's top floor

3. Complemental noun groups

"of" is essential, except in a few specific cases.

C1) The theory of relativity.
C2) The director of marketing.

Complemental noun groups  can often be rephrased as compounds, without 's:

C11) the relativity theory
C21) the marketing director

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Putting adjectives in the right order English

Putting adjectives in the right order  English

Native English speakers naturally place adjectives (and secondary nouns acting as adjectives) in the "correct" order when writing or speaking; but very few native English speakers have ever learnt, or even thought of, the rules that determine the order in which adjectives are placed.
     This obviously means that the rules are a) very basic and simple, and b) very few in number. More than rules, they are principles.

Adjectives are placed in English according to their nature or type. There are three groups of adjectives, defining the qualities of a noun :
► C. Constant, innate or fundamental permanent qualities
► B. Basic, permanent but circumstantial qualities
► A. Accessory, relative or perceived circumstantial qualities. And of course, they will be placed in the natural order ABC, with the most fundamental adjectives coming closest to the noun, i.e. last.
Each group contains different types of adjectives, which may require a specific sequence. the table below lists the different groups and their types, and is followed by examples.
When two group A adjectives of similar nature qualify the same noun, they may be linked by "and". However "and" is never used to link adjectives from different groups.

Group A	Group B	Group C	Noun
Accessories	Basic	Constant
Possessive    > Numerical        perceived quality,       > Size, weight, age        etc	Colour    > Nationality          > Gender (sometimes gender before nationality)	Permanent quality    > substance (often a secondary noun)
My first big	green	rubber	ball
His five old	American		cousins.
	British female		voters
Magnificent old	American	Ford	automobile.
Memorable	French	skiing	holiday
Dangerous and useless		chemical	experiment
Nice fresh	red Spanish		tomatoes

article

1. The Definite Article
How simple English is !!  There is only one definite article, and that is "the"; the only difficulty is knowing when to use it, and when it is not needed.
The basic rules:
Basically, the rules are quite simple:
*  The definite article shows that a noun is being used in a "defined" or restricted context.
*  When a noun is used in a non-defined or "generalizing" context, a definite article is not needed.
Two sorts of noun.
Use of the definite article therefore depends on the nature or type of noun that is being used.
As in other languages, nouns in English can be divided into two distinct categories, called:
 count nouns and non-count nouns.

► Count nouns are nouns referring to items that can be counted, for example:
 One car, two pencils, three people, four guitarists, five hotels etc.
Count nouns can be used in the plural.

►Non-count nouns are nouns referring to abstractions, substances or generalizations, or example:
 Oxygen, health, money, heat, astronomy
Non-count nouns can NOT usually be used in the plural.

THE BIG QUESTION:
Sometimes it is not easy to decide if a plural noun is being used as a generalization, or in a restrictive context: often the speaker or writer can choose. Look at these two sentences:
 a) London buses are red
 b) The London buses are red.
In example (a), the writer is clearly implying a generalisation on the noun group "London buses": All London buses are red.
In example (b), he is referring to a restricted or defined category of the noun "buses",  London buses are red, but other buses may be of other colours.
In cases like these, one therefore has a choice; but the choice is not always completely free, as it often depends on context. Is it more important or more logical to imply a generalization, or a limitation? 
Deciding whether it is best to use an article in such cases is a skill that has to be mastered!
► Follow this link for more information on count and non-count nouns
2. The Indefinite Article
English has two indefinite articles, a and an
     a is used before nouns starting with a consonant or a semivowel
     an is used before nouns starting with a phonetic vowel

Examples:  a dog,  a cat,  an apple,  an orange, but a university (because the word university does not start with a phonetic vowel)

Indefinite articles are used when a count noun in the singular refers to a non-specified entity
Examples:  A train ,  An elephant  (meaning any train, or any elephant).

There is no inderfinite article in the plural. The word "some" is occasionally said to be a plural indefinite article, but really it is a quantifier (like many, few, etc.)

By definition, plural nouns refering to non-specified entities are generalisations, therefore need no article.